The Investiture Controversy— a conflict between the secular heads of European states and the Roman Catholic papacy— raged from 1075 to 1122. At the heart of this struggle was the question of whether the secular, political head of a state had the authority to “invest” or appoint men to high positions in the church hierarchy or if this power was wholly ecclesiastical and belonged to the pope alone. The initial difference of opinion was between Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073–1085) and Henry IV, the German king (1056–1105) and later Holy Roman Emperor (1084– 1105). Henry had interfered with the appointment of religious figures in his kingdom. These ecclesiastical figures— abbots, bishops, and archbishops— were also powerful and wealthy landholders, and their financial support was vital for Henry to maintain control of his kingdom. In his letter, Henry IV calls for the end of Gregory VII’s papacy. In response, Pope Gregory excommunicates Henry (excludes him from the church) and releases Henry’s subjects from their obligation to him.